Bertha Chela-Flores
Optimizing The Teaching of English Suprasegmentals.
Elisabet Arnó i Macià, Carmen Rueda Ramos, Antonia Soler Cervera, Clàudia Barahona Fuentes
Developing Learner Autonomy through a Virtual EAP Course at University.
Ana Díaz Galán and Mª del Carmen Fumero Pérez
The Problem-Solution Pattern: A Tool for the Teaching of Writing?
María Dueñas
A Description of Prototype Models for Content-Based Language Instruction in Higher Education
Olga Esteve, Marta Arumí, Mª Dolors Cañada
Hacia la autonomía del aprendiz en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras en el ámbito universitario: el enfoque por tareas como puente de unión entre el aprendizaje en el aula y el trabajo en autoaprendizaje
Mar Gutiérrez-Colón Plana
The Acquisition of Pragmatic Competence through Virtual English Learning
Gloria Luque Agulló
'Reading' Films and 'Watching' Literary Texts: 5 Lesson Plans for Advanced TEFL Students
Ana Mª Martín Castillejos and Verónica Vivanco Cervera
Non-Native and Native Teachers in ESP: The Use of Simulation Cases in the Class
Pedro Martín Martín
Personal Attribution in English and Spanish Scientific Texts
Ana I. Moreno
Análisis de necesidades para el aula de lengua inglesa en Filología Inglesa: un estudio de caso
Ana María Ortega Cebreros
Measuring Language Anxiety Perceived By Spanish University Students Of English
Pascual Pérez Paredes
Lightnings of Intuition: A Protocol for University Students' Oral Discourse Appreciation
Mireia Trenchs
"Lengua y Literatura" en una Facultad de Humanidades: una propuesta disciplinar y metodológica desde la Filología Inglesa
Karina Vidal
EFL University Students' Cognitive Processing of Spoken Academic Discourse as Evidenced by Lecture Notes
“Lengua y Literatura” en una Facultad de Humanidades: una propuesta disciplinar y metodológica desde la Filología Inglesa
Mireia Trenchs
1.
Introduction[i]
The widespread use of ICT
in education has encouraged university teachers and course designers to devise
virtual courses that can meet the specific needs of students of different
contexts. Within this trend, the Departament d'Universitats, Recerca i
Societat de la Informació of the Generalitat de Catalunya has set up the
Intercampus Program, a joint offer of virtual elective courses in eight Catalan universities.
One of the courses offered by the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
is "English for Academic Purposes: Learning English through the Web", mainly intended
to suit general academic needs of students from different backgrounds.
Precisely, the heterogeneity
of the students has determined the main objective of this EAP (English for
Academic Purposes) course: to promote learner autonomy. Thus, this course
is motivated by two main considerations. On the one hand, university students
need to have a command of English to succeed in the academic world. On the
other hand, we believe that students can benefit from becoming more autonomous,
that is, from developing skills to control their learning process and getting
involved in learning about language. As Ellis and Sinclair (1989) suggest,
learners who develop self-directed learning strategies-related to initiating
and controlling their learning process-can continue learning outside the classroom.
This can prove to be very useful for university students who need to keep
on developing academic and language skills to succeed in academic contexts.
For the purpose of attaining the objectives of the
course, we assume that the Internet is an appropriate medium and a powerful
tool for language learning (see e.g., Sperling 1997; Benson 2001; Warschauer et
al. 2000). The course is delivered through an intranet-the virtual
classroom-which includes e-mail communication, shared spaces (like forums), and
lists of electronic documents and course materials. The Internet is also a
provider of resources of which the learner can take great advantage. The Web
offers a wide variety of materials for language learners, most of which are
highly interactive and especially useful for self-access.
The aim of this article is thus to explore how a
virtual EAP course, which relies on the use of Internet resources for language
learning and is specially designed to promote learner autonomy, can help
university students take control of the learning process. Our views on autonomy
are discussed, and a definition of the term is formulated, on which some of the
tenets of the course are based. The article mainly focuses on the study of the
students' profile as autonomous learners. This profile is obtained by analysing
the views and attitudes they express on language and learning as well as the
actions they report to undertake in order to direct their own learning process.
2. Towards a Working Definition of Learner
Autonomy
A course that caters for a variety of competence
levels, needs and interests and whose main aim is to foster learner autonomy
has to provide for the skills that students need in order to take control of
their own learning process. Thus, a working definition of learner autonomy is
needed and the skills involved need to be identified.
Taking responsibility for one's own learning is a recurrent
notion in works on autonomy (Holec 1981; Dickinson 1987; Little 1991; Benson
2001). Specifically, Holec (1981, 3) defines autonomy as "the ability
to take charge of one's own learning", which involves making decisions about
different aspects of the language learning process (determining objectives,
monitoring progress, or evaluating performance, among others). Along similar
lines, Little (1991, 4) views autonomy as "a capacity-for detachment,
critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action". However, he
adds an essential psychological dimension, which entails that "the learner
will develop a particular kind of psychological relation to the process and
content of his learning".
For the purpose of this course, we adopt Holec's
definition as our main tenet, yet we intend to elaborate on this basic definition,
since, if the aim of the course is to foster learner autonomy, we should keep
in mind those specific skills involved in our conception of the term. We assume
that autonomy entails ability, a specific attitude, and special behaviour. The
autonomous learner displays some ability to direct the course of his/her
learning, which implies being able to make decisions concerning course
management, organisation and content. Besides, a special attitude is expected
from autonomous learners, who actively engage in the learning process. In this
sense, learning about language can help students take informed decisions and
make the most of their learning as highly skilled learners. In practice,
autonomy also involves certain behaviour on the part of learners. They need to
be reflective about their own learning, taking the initiative to explore, find
possible solutions and contrast results. Thus, according to our views, learner
autonomy is ultimately reflected through a series of skills that we seek to
foster in the course. These include assessing needs, establishing objectives,
monitoring progress, evaluating and choosing materials, reflecting on learning,
and providing self-assessment.
If one of the main aims of the course is to help
students become more effective learners and take on responsibility for their
own learning, some learner training will be required (Ellis and Sinclair 1989,
2). Students need to be familiar with learning strategies so that they can find
out which of them are more appropriate to direct their own learning, that is,
to help them focus on how to learn rather than on what
to learn. As for learning strategies in relation to distance learning courses
or distributed environments, Hurd (2000, 63) points out that "conscious
selection and self-directed involvement, both features of strategies É are also
characteristics of an autonomous approach, and of general relevance, therefore
to the needs of distance language learners". She adds "for distance learners,
left to a large extent to their own devices, it could be that metacognitive
knowledge and development of metacognitive skills are not only an essential
part of effective learning but also a pre-requisite to it". In line with this,
we believe that if students are to become more effective learners, emphasis
should be placed on training them to develop the ability to make choices about
learning, as well as to become more reflective, critical and willing to
experiment. In keeping with Ellis and Sinclair's (1989, 2) views, we believe
that students need information about language, the learning process, and about
themselves as language learners, to become aware of language as well as of
learning techniques and processes. Therefore, the course aims to provide
students with resources, study guides, specific activities and teacher's
guidance, with the purpose of making students resourceful and actively engaged.
Moreover, in this EAP context, the learner has to develop certain study skills
(Jordan 1997) which can be enhanced by the development of study competence skills.
This more general study capacity, which includes cognitive and affective
factors, such as self-confidence, self-awareness, the ability to think
critically and creatively, and independence of mind (Waters and Waters 2001),
can help students perform different learning tasks efficiently and with
confidence.
Learner autonomy calls for a reappraisal of teachers
and learners' roles (Lynch 2001, 394), and especially in a distance learning
situation. As students are not constrained by time or space, and do not have
regular classroom contact, they need to decide on the scheduling of activities.
Therefore, the student has to take the initiative and become the manager of
his/her own learning process; in fact, we approach the learning process from
the student's perspective, in which he/she has a more prominent role, whereas
the teacher assumes a subsidiary role. Voller (1997, 99-105) suggests that the
two main functions traditionally assigned to the teacher-those of manager and
instructor-have been revised in autonomous language learning and, accordingly,
we view the role of the teacher as a facilitator, counsellor and resource. In
this EAP course, the teacher gives support to learners, motivating, encouraging
them and making them aware of the benefits of becoming more independent. The
teacher also provides guidance and is ready to give information about learning
routes and resources if the students need help. Finally, the teacher is seen as
a resource in that he or she can provide learners with a wide range of activities
from which the student will choose. Yet this study focuses only on the
learner's role, and a detailed analysis of the teacher's role is beyond the
scope of this study.
With a more active role, students are involved in two
activities traditionally considered part of the teacher's role: syllabus
design, and evaluation or assessment (Ellis and Sinclair 1989). As mentioned
before, the course aims to develop students' skills to take informed decisions
about their own learning paths and to evaluate their own progress. In this
respect, teachers and learners negotiate course contents and methodology, and
learners make decisions according to their own views and principles with the
teacher's support. Specifically, students create their own syllabus and perform
the tasks according to how they interpret them-which may not necessarily
coincide with the materials designer or the teacher's intention-and, at the
same time, fill them in with their own contents. The teacher accepts
learner-guided tasks as a natural aspect of a course intended to endow students
with the capacity to make decisions about their own learning process and, thus,
relinquishes authority over the course.
The tool used to accomplish the main objective of the
course, to develop learner autonomy, is the Internet. Thus, course activities
have been designed around Internet resources, which are especially appropriate
for self-access, as they are intended for autonomous learners. The use of the
Internet also offers additional advantages: it is motivating, dynamic, and
contains resources for communicating with users worldwide, among others. This
tool is considered particularly suitable to our methodology in which we try to
promote a wide range of learning strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, and
socio-affective.
The potential that the Internet offers for language
learning has been highlighted in the recent literature (Chun and Plass 2000;
Teeler and Gray 2000; Warschauer et al. 2000). As Warschauer et al. claim
(2000, 7), the Internet provides "authenticity, literacy, interaction, vitality
and empowerment" to the English classroom. Indeed, the dynamic nature of the
Internet, together with the wide range of materials and resources it offers,
makes it a valuable tool for language learning. At the same time, the
relationship between the use of the Internet and learner autonomy has already
been suggested by Little (1997, 235-236), who equates the Internet with a
"Ôvirtual' self-access centre" and states that students can benefit from the
vast amount of resources present in the Internet, only if they are aware of
their role as learners and are equipped with the tools to make the most of
those resources for language learning. Similarly, Warschauer et al. (2000)
claim that successful results depend on how the Internet is used. Along the
same lines, Kenning (1996, 128) points out that "the provision of choice and
opportunities is not enough by itself in that it does no more than set up
conditions compatible with autonomy. It is necessary to go beyond that first step
and, through learner training, enable students to make informed choices". In
keeping with these views, in English for Academic Purposes: Learning English
through the Web participants are trained to use the Internet
for authentic communication in English so that they can get involved in real
situations. The Internet is also used as the main source of materials and, as
such, it provides resources and authentic data for course activities. As
Slaouti (2002, 111) suggests, the dynamic nature of the Internet and the
immediacy it offers to access information can promote learners' confidence in
their study skills and in their ability to perform independently.
3. Students' Profile as Autonomous Learner: A Study of Their Views on
Language and Learning
The concept of learner autonomy presented in this
article is based on the assumption that students' work is guided by the ideas
and principles that they themselves have set. Thus, in order for students to
become autonomous, they should be able to create a general framework in which
learning takes place and which, in turn, allows them to manage their learning
process according to their own views.
Thus, in order to describe students' profile as
autonomous learners, we carried out a study to analyse the views and attitudes
on language and learning they manifested in written form, using the Internet
resources that were the basis of the course. In turn, these ideas expressed by
students themselves constitute the framework which should guide their learning
process. The data for this study were gathered from student work on activities
specially designed to foster learner autonomy, done as part of the course English
for Academic Purposes: Learning English through the Web,
during the fall term of the academic year 2001-2002.
3.1. Subjects
The subjects that took part in our study were 29
students from eight Catalan universities, doing a variety of degree courses,
who had enrolled in the course "English for Academic Purposes: Learning
English through the Web", taught in a distance mode
through a virtual campus. It was a heterogeneous group made up of students from
different backgrounds with general academic needs, though prone to the use of
technology-based learning environments. Because this EAP course was designed so
that students could choose their own learning objectives, focusing mainly on
study skills, students' needs varied greatly across the group. As there were no
specific language requirements, students had different levels of competence in
English. However, this group consisted of highly motivated students who liked
(and presumably were good at) learning English, knew what distance learning
involves, and-given the nature of the course-accepted that they should work
independently of the teacher, i.e. that they needed to be autonomous learners.
It should be remembered that those particular students had enrolled-and thus
shown special interest-in a pilot program, "Intercampus", offered outside their
own university.
3.2. Data
The data for this study were obtained from students'
actions, views and attitudes related to language and learning, expressed by
students themselves through course activities specially designed to promote
learner autonomy. In this sense, we consider that for students to be fully
autonomous, they should be allowed to generate their own ideas and principles,
which will constitute the framework for learning to take place. For this
reason, course activities were intended to encourage learners to do specific
actions associated with autonomous learning as well as to discuss and share
their views on language and learning. Specifically, the aim of course
activities was to encourage students:
-
to
reflect on the learning process by expressing and sharing ideas about language
and learning, through virtual debates that took place in an electronic forum.
-
to
use resources, strategies, and techniques to manage students' own learning
(e.g. evaluation of material, assessment, etc).
-
to
create more learning opportunities by maximising their exposure to real language
use and by communicating in English in authentic situations.
-
to
make the most of Internet resources for language learning, especially as regards
academic needs.
This study analyses the views on language and learning
expressed by students in a sample of course activities and debates intended to
promote learner autonomy, both in terms of undertaking specific actions and
generating their own ideas. The sample activities analysed reflect the general
objectives mentioned above. The following table summarises the specific
orientation of these activities and debates and includes the code assigned to
each activity:
TASKS
ANALYSED |
TASK
CODE |
SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES |
Self-access
learning plan |
(SA) |
To
construct a plan for monitoring one's own learning process. |
Grammar
safari[ii] |
(GS) |
To
analyse samples of real language in order to investigate and learn more about
grammar. |
Using
communication resources to improve language skills |
(CR) |
To use
Internet communication resources to exchange information about language. |
Debates |
(DB) |
To
express and share ideas about online learning, the use of the Internet in
language learning, what makes a good language learner, and what has been
learnt during the course. |
As this course took place in a virtual learning
environment, through the Internet, both students' activities and contributions
to debates were expressed in written form. They consisted of electronic
documents and e-mail messages sent either to the teacher's mailbox or to the
classroom forum (i.e. an electronic mailbox shared by all class participants,
like a newsgroup), depending on the nature of each activity.
3.3. Analysis
The data for this study were analysed qualitatively,
identifying and categorising the references related to learner autonomy that
students made in their electronic messages and course work. Specifically, we
looked at the actions students reported to have undertaken-or that they had the
intention to undertake in the future-as regards language learning as well as at
the views and attitudes they expressed. Actions refer not only to specific
activities that students can be seen to undertake through course work, but also
to the intentions that they explicitly express. In contrast, by views and
attitudes, we refer both to students' opinions on or disposition towards language
and learning as well as to their mental representations of different aspects of
learning. By analysing their actions and views related to language and
learning, our objective was to describe students' profile as autonomous
learners. Given the qualitative nature of the study, we used ad hoc
categories, related to the above parameters, that emerged from the analysis of
the data.
3.4. Results and discussion
Our qualitative analysis was based on the broad
parameters that we used to find out how students revealed their autonomous
behaviour: specific actions, on the one hand, and views and attitudes, on the
other. Both actions and views that arise from students' own independent
decisions help us draw a complete profile of our students' autonomous behaviour,
according to the notion of learner autonomy held in this paper. Within this
framework, we identified the following categories, summarised in the table
below, which also includes an example of each category.
According to the learning-to-learn orientation of the
course, these categories derive, to a great extent, from course activities
(e.g. constructing a self-access learning plan or participating in debates
discussing aspects of language and learning). The interest of this study lies
in finding out what specific actions students undertake and what attitudes they
manifest as they develop or show their learning autonomy. Therefore, this study
focuses on what students say and do as regards language and learning.
ACTIONS |
Analysing needs and establishing objectives "I need to listen or improve my
comprehension and I find listening difficult". (SA) |
Focusing on specific language areas "The structure I would like to focus on
is: the use of which/what and as/like, mistakes I make very often". (GS) |
|
Making decisions about methodology "the grammar says: we say which when we are thinking about a small number and we use what
in other situations. Let's see it in different kinds of texts". (GS) |
|
Applying skills and strategies "I'm used to working with keywords and
search engines, as a librarian, but I'd never used them to search for grammar
use of words. I've found it very interesting and I'll do it more often". (GS) |
|
Evaluating progress and results "At least, I've got used to writing long
texts without lots of problems". (DB) |
|
Expressing intentions about future learning actions "I have discovered many different
resources that we can use freely through the Internet at any time. Therefore,
I can continue my learning process after this course" . (DB) |
|
VIEWS
AND ATTITUDES |
General attitude towards language and learning "Also, after having done this course I
think that I will feel more self-confident when I read academic texts". (DB) |
Expressing critical views about some language teaching practices "It is important for students to learn
the language in a natural way, and, if teachers tell them that the word "just" is used in a simple context
(present perfect), then, when they are discovering the "real world", they
will notice that what they have learnt is not true, because if they read an
article and they find that they just can't understand the word in that
context, they will feel sad". (GS) |
|
Analysing distance learning "The fact of not knowing who you are
talking to also brings some advantages and disadvantages. If you can see
people, there is more human contact, more feeling. With online learning, we
can only see written words (unless you've got a camera to do
video-conferences)". (DB) |
|
Expressing opinions about the potential of Internet-based resources
for language learning "As there are lots of web pages that can
be visited, I think the ways of learning a foreign language using the
Internet are infinitely. We can find two types of sources in our learning:
the sites especially designed to learn a language and the general sites that
are written in that language". (DB) |
|
Describing the profile of the good language learner "We have read and discussed about the
learning process. Although it may seem useless, I believe that it is very
important to be aware of the way you learn and how you can improve.
Therefore, learning new tips about how to learn and becoming a more active
learner can help us make the most of all the efforts we do to learn a
language". (DB) |
The analysis of the data shows that students take
actions during the learning process, based on independent decision-making, such
as focusing on specific language areas they wish to work on. This particular
action, which was elicited in one of the activities, is carried out by students
either from the analysis of their own needs and weaknesses or out of their
curiosity about language and their need to go beyond grammar explanations. In
this case, some students who are particularly alert to language notice
discrepancies between real language use and traditional grammar explanations,
and so manifest their intention to investigate language use, as in the example
below:
I have
chosen the particle just because when English is
taught, this word is shown only with an aspect (the present perfect form), but
looking at the articles, at the natural and real English I have noticed
some things (GS).
When
it comes to analysing needs and determining learning objectives, rather than
carrying out a real analysis, what students actually do is to express their own
perceptions of difficulties or aspects they consider important and must be
learnt (e.g. vocabulary, phrasal verbs, etc). The fact that students highlight
certain language points may be influenced by the emphasis teachers have placed
on those aspects in previous language courses. Besides, the learning objectives
that students establish are often too broad to be really useful, as they only
mention general skills or language areas (e.g. practising speaking, improving
grammar, etc). In some cases, when learners find it difficult to articulate or
narrow down the kind of action they decide to undertake, they make decisions
under teacher guidance. This kind of guidance consists in posing questions or
problems to be solved so that students know exactly what they are looking for
and can find the answers by themselves.
Other
specific actions students undertake are related to methodology or, in other
words, to specific procedures to be implemented. During the course, students
are provided with language resources (reference and practice material) as well
as with lots of samples of real language use, and they are encouraged to
explore and find more texts. The purpose of these activities is to enable them
to contrast what the grammar resources say with what they find in real texts.
This is one of the actions that students do and that we consider especially
important in terms of learner autonomy, as it helps them pose their own
language questions and, from there, carry out further learning actions.
Among
the actions that students take, those related to the use of skills and
strategies (e.g. skimming, predicting, vocabulary acquisition strategies, etc.)
are prominent, as students mention them in their course work. Of particular
interest is the fact that some students apply strategies proper to their
discipline. Some of the students explicitly refer to a strategy that they have
acquired as part of their discipline and announce that they will use it for
language learning. In other cases, students reveal, through their work, the use
of certain strategies that can be associated with their discipline-for example,
an engineering student who gives grammatical explanations by using formulas.
As
for the evaluation of progress and results, rather than mentioning language
learning outcomes in terms of proficiency, students particularly refer to
learning resources-with special emphasis on the use of technology. Students'
perception of having acquired new resources is reflected in their use of key
terms like "autonomy", "independence" and "self-sufficiency". Seeing themselves
as autonomous learners, they also state their intention to undertake future
learning actions, once the course is over, which can be regarded as a
commitment towards the learning process. Nevertheless, students seem to find it
difficult to define and articulate clearly the learning actions they intend to
take in the future-similar to what happens when they determine learning
objectives based on their needs analysis. Being able to narrow down future
learning actions to take should help learners manage their learning.
Despite
their difficulty in verbalising what specific actions and objectives they
intend to pursue, students express a combination of intentions and positive
attitudes (that is, disposition) towards English language learning. It is
remarkable that, rather than language study, they view their future language
learning activity as practice and communication; for example, this particular
student even suggests that the learning process should be incorporated into
their lives:
We must
try to introduce the learning process into our daily live, in the way that it
doesn't suppose any effort for our part, but doing it in an unconsciously way.
For example, we can get used to read English journals, to visit English web
pages, to view English films ... To learn a language doesn't have to be a hard
work (DB).
The second
parameter that we used in our study refers to our students' views and attitudes
towards language and learning. Finding out about these views may help us draw a
clearer picture of our students as language learners and understand the
rationale underlying their decisions related to the learning process. The
general attitude that students show towards English language learning, which is
positive and indicates greater self-confidence, is clearly associated with the
evaluation of their progress, as mentioned above. However, one of the
categories that appear in the analysis of the data also reveals students'
capacity to offer a critical view about some language teaching practices, in
particular about the discrepancy between the explanations they receive as
language learners of English and the real language they encounter when they are
faced with authentic texts.
Given that
the course takes place in distance mode and is based on the use of the
Internet, students' views on these aspects are also especially prominent. When
analysing distance learning, they emphasise the effort an online situation
requires of students. According to our learners' views, online students should
be self-motivated, organised, and able to manage their time and work, for
example. Students also place emphasis on the contrast between what they call
the "traditional" and "online method". They point out such advantages of online
learning as "freedom", easy access and availability while they mention the
dehumanisation that online learning involves, on the grounds that there is "no
human contact, only written words". They all agree that online English courses
are not suitable for beginners, but for students who have reached a certain
level of competence.
As a
whole, students evaluate Internet resources positively. The areas they think
the Internet may help them develop most are reading skills, real time "talking"
through chats, and solving students' specific language doubts and difficulties.
In this sense, it should be pointed out that students highly value that the use
of Internet communication resources (like forums and chats devoted to language
matters) allows them to talk about language while they are engaged in
purposeful communication with users worldwide.
I think
that Internet communication resources can be perfectly useful to solve language
problems. I find it very interesting because it is a way of learning more
things about a language while you are communicating with people all around the
world (CR).
These
remarks reveal that students are able to use socio-affective strategies, such
as reaching out for help from other people, which are characteristic of
autonomous learning.
The views
discussed so far provide us with a picture of our students as autonomous
learners, a picture which becomes clearer as they describe-through an online
discussion forum-the profile of the good language learner. According to our
students, a good language learner should be interested in cultural aspects, as
they are inextricably linked to language learning. Motivation, curiosity,
interest, and self-discipline are considered to be important characteristics of
the good language learner. As regards these concepts, students point out the
recognition of one's needs as a learner, and the reasons for engaging in
language learning, as well as "linguistic curiosity"-as they call it-which they
define as "noticing the new words or expressions we hear, asking native
speakers and trying to use them". This remark reveals an alert attitude towards
the language, as students are ready to notice features of the input and
incorporate them into their own production, turning to expert users of the
language if necessary.
A key concept that emerges from the analysis of the
data is learner awareness, as they recognise that "reading and discussing about
the learning process", "being aware of the way you learn", and "learning new
tips about how to learn and becoming a more active learner" can help them
become more effective learners. The relationship between learner awareness and
autonomous learning is made all the more apparent by our students' comments,
related to students' active role as managers of their own learning, who decide
on the strategies that can be more effectively applied:
Another
feature of good language learners is that they are aware of the way they learn
to learn: they try different strategies and discover which one makes the most
for them, they take advantages of all the resources, etc. (DB)
Actually,
students set great store by the concept of learning styles and strategies.
Specifically, they acknowledge the need for a learner to be "organized", which
they define as being able to perform actions and take decisions related to
learning management, such as analysing needs, setting objectives, working on a
regular basis, being able to focus their work on their weaknesses. Besides,
they also mention specific techniques that can help them in learning management
(e.g. using timetables). Also related to learning strategies, students mention
the importance of using what they know about language.
"good
language learners are those that can make use of what they already know about
languages. That is, they will be able to apply their previous knowledge to the
new situation" (DB).
When
describing
the profile of the good language learner, students consider the concept
of "learner autonomy" especially relevant, since it constantly appears in their
discourse. Students use the concepts of "autonomy" and "independence" as
synonyms, meaning "to learn by oneself". They particularly point out that
autonomy derives from students' interest in learning and is a requirement for a
good language learner. Students'
own definition of learner autonomy involves making the most of every
opportunity they have to learn the language:
"A good
language learner has always to be a little autonomous, that is, he has to find
everywhere the opportunity to learn something new or to practice what he had
learned" (DB).
In sum, the
conclusion our students reach as regards learner autonomy is that autonomy
itself is a key element in effective language learning, closely linked to
motivation and interest, which goes beyond a particular course or learning
situation (i.e. online or classroom-based). In their view, autonomy is an
attitude that reveals a certain disposition towards learning on the part of
students, who try to maximize their opportunities to use the language and to
pay attention to new linguistic elements that they can incorporate into their
own repertoire.
4. Discussion
and conclusions
This article seeks to explore how students use the tools provided in a
distance course intended to promote learner autonomy, which places special
emphasis on Internet resources. From the analysis of their written answers to
course activities, specially designed to allow them to express their views on
language learning and to undertake actions related to learner autonomy, we
tried to describe their profile as autonomous learners.
The analysis of these comments shows that students are able to perform
a wide range of actions related to self-directed learning and to express their
views on language and learning. In our opinion, both management and reflection
are essential for learner autonomy. From the data analysed, one of the aspects
that stands out is students' awareness of and concern for undertaking actions
at the different stages of the learning process, which range from identifying
needs to evaluating results, including the transfer of academic skills acquired
in their field of study to language learning. At the same time, it is
remarkable that students do not see the course as an end in itself; rather,
they express their intention to go on with their learning process once the course
has finished, by making the most of the opportunities they have to practice the
language through exposure.
In addition to specific skills related to the management of learning,
truly autonomous learners should also develop their own beliefs and views. Students
have been able to express critical views towards certain teaching practices and
opinions on the benefits of the Internet as a tool for language learning. Given
the virtual context in which the course takes place, it is important to note
that students are aware of the peculiarities of virtual learning environments
and are able to compare them with traditional methods. They emphasize, however,
that in order to succeed in an online English course, the student needs to have
already reached a certain level of competence.
An important aspect which emerges from the analysis of the learning
frameworks developed by students is the profile that they draw of the good
language learner. Specifically, students have pinpointed several aspects that
have a key role in effective language learning. They acknowledge the importance
of cultural knowledge as a gateway to the language, since, as one of the
students points out, "a language is always the reflect[ion] of a culture".
Students agree on the need to develop learner awareness in order to succeed in
language learning. Particularly, they refer to the role of motivation and
curiosity, which fuel the learning process, to the application of different
learning strategies and awareness of one's learning style, and to the ability
to manage the learning process. Of particular relevance to the present study is
the fact that students themselves highlight the importance of learner autonomy;
one of the students even defines the concept of autonomy, which derives from an
interest in learning and consists in learning by oneself.
Even though most students are able to show behaviour and skills
related to learner autonomy, there is a certain disparity among students, which
leads us to assume that some learners will be more effective at managing their
learning process than others. However, an aspect that comes to the fore is that
a high level of commitment to learning clearly favours effectiveness in taking
control of one's learning process. In this sense, course materials are intended
to arouse students' commitment towards the learning process, by combining
specific activities designed to promote autonomous behaviour with debates that
encourage reflection on language and learning.
In this course, special emphasis has been placed on the
learning-to-learn component and, therefore, it is hardly surprising that
students have greatly internalised the discourse used in course materials. This
fact may explain the large amount of metalanguage used by learners as well as
its sophistication. Nevertheless, students not only use the terms that appear
in their materials but also adapt them to make their own definitions and reach
their own conclusions as regards what it means to learn a language. Apart from
that, using a common electronic forum allows students to share and contrast
their own views. Using the input from course materials, students can be seen to
create their own discourse about language and learning, which can be useful
information for the teacher, as it may serve as a common ground in order to
identify and discuss the questions and aspects that arise throughout the term.
To conclude, finding out about students' profiles as learners may help
the teacher take into account their views, needs, and expectations so as to
adjust his or her intervention when helping them manage their own learning.
The ultimate objective should be to help students develop a higher degree
of learner autonomy and, thus, make the learning process more effective. A
further research question that emerges from this study points to finding out
whether, and to what extent, students maintain their level of commitment and
are able to apply the skills they have acquired in this course in managing
their own learning in the future, without the teacher's guidance.
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i
This article reports on the rationale
that underlies the course English for Academic Purposes: Learning English
through the Web designed by Clàudia Barahona and Elisabet Arnó (Barahona
and Arnó, 2001a).
ii The Grammar Safari activity is based
on the Grammar Safari that can be found at http://deil.lang.uiuc.edu/web.pages/GrammarSafari.html
from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.